Flight Planning and Navigation
Electronic planning and navigation
Rev. 9 — page content was last changed 18 August 2011
Page edited by RA-Aus member Dave Gardiner www.redlettuce.com.au September 2009
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Flight Planning and Navigation |
Electronic planning and navigationRev. 9 — page content was last changed 18 August 2011 Page edited by RA-Aus member Dave Gardiner www.redlettuce.com.au September 2009 |
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Content |
12.1 TechnologyGPS technology, combined with an accurate aeronautical database, provides excellent position-fixing capability — and excellent DR capability when associated with a stored flight plan. GPS is not yet classified as a sole-means navigation system under the VFR and is only officially regarded as a primary-means day VFR navigation if the GPS system accords with the FAA's Technical Standard Order [TSO] C129 or TSO C145/6 series, or has other CASA approval. However, the reality is that many recreational pilots do use non-TSO'd GPS — plus electronic on-screen position tracking (i.e. a moving map display) — as the primary means of airborne navigation.When a small, portable computer is used for a true topographical moving map display then additional material can be added to create 'personal' charts. Weather, NOTAM, ERSA pages and so on can be stored. Thus, the concept of the 'electronic flight bag' is introduced — hopefully with paper charts and manual pilotage as the backup system. So, electronic flight planning and electronic navigation is becoming the norm for many recreational pilots, not least because the availability of powerful, inexpensive and highly reliable desktop computers, handheld PDAs and handheld GPSs (or GPS cards) are now associated with a proliferation of quality utility software — readily and cheaply available to all via the internet. This enables any reasonably computer adept person to put together a system of software, general purpose (rather than application-oriented) hardware and navigation databases tailored to their particular aviation needs; all without excessive cost if well researched and done carefully. Good electronic VFR flight planning should only differ from the manual flight planning described in prior modules, in that digitised (rather than paper) topographical charts are used to plan, and finally plot, the route. The final flight plan is stored in digital, rather than paper and pencil, format. When airborne there is only a slight difference in pilotage where the navigator — while still reading from map to ground — is primarily relying on a cursor on a digitised moving topographical chart to display a constantly updated current position and then confirming it with the ground. The significant difference in airborne navigation is in using electronic DR to provide all the in-flight data and corrections necessary to arrive at the planned destination safely. That indicates the vital importance of working with a complete and absolutely accurate aeronautical database. In addition — as a flow-on from the glass primary flight displays and multi-function displays of larger contemporary IFR aircraft — the availability of rather inexpensive non-certified electronic flight instrument systems [EFIS] is increasing. Such non-certified systems can be installed legally (see Jon Gough's glass cockpit) in RA-Aus amateur-built category aircraft — although there will be a regulatory problem if a non-certified EFIS is providing altitude encoding to a transponder. These flight instrument systems are software-based and, in future, are likely to provide increasing data transfer to or from other avionics within electronic communications, navigation and surveillance technology. There is some possibility that ADS-B will be operational in many areas of Australian lower level airspace by 2015–2018. If so, it is then likely that a handheld PDA, linked to the ADS-B device, could be used for a low-cost cockpit display of traffic information overlaying a moving topographic map. Electronic planning and navigation should follow the same procedures described in the preceding modules:
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12.2 Navigational information databasesIn manual flight planning, navigational information is obtained from printed documents — ERSA, ERC-L and other reference charts — that contain details concerning aerodromes, navigation aids, air route intersections, special use airspace, airspace boundaries, magnetic variation and communications frequencies: obviously location latitude, longitude and elevation are particularly important details. The digital version of such print information is the aeronautical navigation database. Such databases are supplied via various media, including plug-in data cards and internet download, and it is most important that the compiler/distributor of the database material has a quality assurance system that guarantees the accuracy of the data. Jeppesen is regarded as the best source — certainly the best known — but most flight planning software includes a proprietary database and, hopefully, some guarantee of its quality level. In some databases the aerodrome runway data also includes a graphic display — as in ERSA.In addition to the database a full-function GPS receiver will utilise a built-in ground map or 'base map' and the data that can be displayed graphically, such as locations and airspace boundaries, is extracted from the database and represented by icons on the basic map page. The base map in a GPS receiver usually cannot be updated or changed over although some receivers employ a blank programmable plug-in cartridge; other maps, selected from a proprietary CD, can then be loaded. The problem for recreational pilots is that the standard aviation databases — the Jeppesen, for example — are amended monthly; thus an initial database will become increasingly out of date. However, the bulk of the database changes relate to refinements that are probably only applicable to IFR operations. The updates come in CD form for use in PCs connected to the GPS receiver via a special data cable, or in a replaceable data cartridge format. Update subscription services are comparatively costly for the non-professional, so the fine judgement for recreational pilots is when, or how often, to update the Jeppesen database. As non-TSO'd GPS is officially only a supplemental-means navigational tool, and if VFR pilots in Australia always check before flight the airfield information contained in ERSA online, then the only significant area for doubt is in changes to controlled airspace or special use airspace boundaries. The use of current Airservices Australia's VNC and VTC charts (paper or digitised) and reference to NOTAM during flight planning will prevent any problems in that area. The data for airfields that are not contained in a standard aviation database can be entered in a user's database if required. The need for absolute assurance that location coordinates and elevations have been correctly ascertained and entered, cannot be over-emphasised. Database editing and transfer softwareWaypoint+ is a shareware utility for both way transfer of route, track, and waypoint data between Garmin GPS and desktop computer flight planning programs, simplifying the processes of creating and editing these data. Saved data files can be in text format with comma-separated fields, and easily edited using simple text editors such as Windows Notepad.Using Waypoint+ facilitates upload of the flight plan as a route for use in a Garmin GPS. Routes from the Garmin GPS can be added as standard flight routes in flight planning software. Waypoint lists can be added to the desktop flight planning database. G7ToWin is a utility for two-way transfer of waypoint and route data between Garmin, Magellan, or Lowrance/Eagle GPS units and a Windows desktop. Waypoints, routes and track logs can be edited by G7ToWin and stored to various file types. There are other useful 'G7' utilities on that site, among them G7ToCE which allows two-way transfer between the GPS types above and a Windows CE PDA. AviaDBM is a software package enabling updating of the Garmin GPS maps to include your own special features, and database corrections if you don't want to buy new aviation databases. OziExplorer can also be used for the import and export of own waypoints and routes. |
12.3 Digitised aeronautical chartsRoute construction in electronic flight planning follows the steps outlined in section 3.4 using trip planning software on a desktop computer. Much of this specialised software just uses monochromatic graphics, but some flight planning software now utilises digitised aeronautical and topographical charts.The printed WAC, VNC, VTC, ERC-L and PCA charts are also available on CDs in raster digitised format from MapTrax, originating from Airservices Australia. Those digitised Airservices Australia charts, plus a discounted update subscription service, are also available to users of the AirNav VFR flight planning software (see below). Presumably charts supplied in this format are approved within the terms of CAR 233. The raster format is for use in desktop computers with flight planning software and for in-flight use in laptops or PDAs with moving map software. GPS moving maps use vector digitisation and are usually only available from GPS manufacturers or their distributors. A vector image is a series of mathematically defined points, lines and polygons (closed shapes) whereas a raster image (such as that from a digital camera or a scanner) is a matrix of rows and columns each cell contains a picture element (pixel) with a discrete colour value — a bit-mapped image — a BMP, TIFF, JPEG, GIF or PNG file. Vector images are usually SVG, SWF or AI files and allow 'zoom-in' without distortion, whereas rasters do not — unless a larger file has been created containing several 'zoom' levels. When a paper map is scanned to produce a raster image a few latitude/longitude control points have to be identified and stored in a calibration text file together with other essential information such as the map projection and datum. This may require some utility software — which is generally included in flight planning software packages — or possibly just a normal text editing utility. There is software available to convert raster to vector, and vice versa. You can use an A4-size desktop scanner to produce digitised maps but it is a tedious process scanning a chart in portions and then 'stitching' them together; it is much easier to purchase them in CD/DVD format. Dr Paul Boxer of Sentient Software (the publishers of AirNav VFR flight planning software) points out that "It is a breach of the Copyright Act to copy or scan any of the Airservices Australia charts without a licence, even if you've bought 1000 copies. You must have a licence from Airservices (like the one I have to pay for) to reproduce the maps in any format. As far as I know, only AirNav VFR and MapTrax are allowed to do this." The same copyright protection would apply to most maps. As every pixel in a bit-mapped image can be edited (the colour value changed with image manipulation software) then permanent user data and symbols — for example, the verified position and name of a private airstrip or a named waypoint — can easily be added to the original image (with careful matching of font, size and colour) to create a personalised chart (WAC or VNC for example). Software such as OziExplorer [below] includes this facility but most standard image editing software will do the same. Considering that, with a very few exceptions, all Australian controlled airspace below 8500 feet amsl is within 50 nm of the coast-line then, outside that coastal fringe, the VNCs and VTCs are of no particular use and the scale of the WACs is really too small for light aircraft pilotage. The NATMAP 250K series provide a good, larger-scale navigation solution for most of Australia, even though they contain no aeronautical data. As with a paper map, digitisation allows the user to mark up the chart with any information considered pertinent, even allowing permanent storage of several versions of the one chart, and the NATMAP 250K series are valid for many years. The problem with NATMAP 250K is the Universal Transverse Mercator [UTM] projection and unless the user is familiar with the concept of 'northing' and 'easting' coordinates — and the GPS coordinates are switchable from lat/long to UTM — the maps are rather difficult to use. The digitised NATMAP 250K series may be purchased from Geoscience Australia. The 500 or so maps of the NATMAP 250K series are available on CD for about $100 which is less than 3% of the cost of the paper series and well worth having as home reference material, even if you don't use them for aeronautical purposes. |
The Personal Digital Assistant or PDA:
 This is a pocket computer for performing specific tasks and generally equipped with the PALM OS or POCKET PC operating systems and better suited than laptops to small cockpits – there are no stowage problems and no hard disk drive to crash during turbulence. Your first priority is to fly the aeroplane and keep an adequate scan going — not possible with a laptop in the cockpit.
There is a wide range of PDAs available, mostly with small keyboards and stylus-based user input systems. The more expensive will have, in some form, both CompactFlash [CF] and Secure Digital/MultiMedia [SD/MM] extended memory capability; the latter for map storage. A PDA should have an RS-232 serial port for optional connection of a conventional handheld GPS. The Cumulus Soaring web site has a very good page detailing current PDAs and personal navigation devices [PNDs], plus the ancillary equipment, suitable for aviation purposes. CF cards are electrically erasable, programmable, read-only memory chips — EEPROMs. They are prolific and inexpensive, and include a controller chip for higher transfer rates. SD/MMs are small plug-in memory cards for digital cameras and PDAs; current (2009) capacity at least 3 GB, with a write-protect switch for increased data security. GPS navigation capability with on-screen position tracking can be added to a PDA with moving map software. Such software generally requires the data output from the GPS to conform to the National Marine Electronics Association serial data format NMEA 0183, where the data format is a string (a sentence) of comma-separated values [CSV]. (I find it interesting that each sentence is terminated by the 'carriage return/line feed' characters from the old telegraph code of the 1930s. "The more things change, the more they stay the same.") The GPS module supplying the PDA could be a cable-attached conventional handheld GPS receiver or just a basic GPS engine (chip) and an antenna, such as one of the following forms:
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12.4 The National Aeronautical Information Processing SystemAirservices Australia provides the National Aeronautical Information Processing System [NAIPS], a user-friendly and comprehensive online pilot briefing and flight notification service. (The Bureau of Meteorology provides all the meteorological data to NAIPS.) But first you need to register and set up a password and user ID. The form displayed indicates an aviation reference number [ARN] is required; if you don't have an ARN, enter 0 (zero) in that field and, hopefully, all will be well. If that doesn't work send an e-mail request to briefing.manager@airservicesaustralia.com. Your registration will be confirmed by email within 24 hours. There is also a telephone NAIP help desk at 1800 801 960. NAIPS can also be accessed through the internet via a stand-alone program (rather than a web browser) available on CD from Airservices Australia.When registered, you can access Pilot Briefing; enter ID and password, and then click the required link. If you choose 'Area Briefing' you can select up to five briefing areas by clicking on the map or by entering the required areas in the entry boxes, and then click on the 'Submit Request' button. You can place a zero in the aircraft ID box if you wish. Alternatively click on the 'Area Directory' link to select any of the area or sub areas from the directory list. But be aware that ultralight pilots may only use NAIPS to access weather and NOTAM briefing material. Ultralight flight notifications, except for Bass Strait crossings, may not be entered but you can practice lodging flight plans if you enter NOSEND in the aircraft ID box. Save the ARFORs, METARs, TAFs and NOTAM in a selected folder — for later transfer to a PDA. Rather than using the on-line browser version you may download the software for doing much of the planning off-line you can download the Internet Access Client Software for flight planning, weather forecasts, notam and subsequent flight plan submission to NAIPS. Fairly simple to use, your aircraft details etc are stored and NAIPS will provide confirmation of flight plan acceptance. 12.5 Flight planning softwareA range of desktop computer flight planning software is available to facilitate route selection. Waypoints are selected (either from a table or by point-and-click methods) and the planned route(s) plotted on a chart display.Some software requires basic performance, fuel consumption and other data for the user's aircraft to be pre-stored. Then, after entering forecast wind velocity for various altitudes, E-6B software calculates much the same information as acquired/calculated manually (in section 5.4), thus allowing the user to select an optimum route and cruise altitude. The route, resultant flight plan and other data can then be printed or uploaded into a GPS or PDA, the latter process probably requiring a software conversion utility. Most flight planning software supports import/export of waypoint files. Some of the currently (November 2009) available Australian flight planning software is listed below. Desktop computer flight planning softwareUltraNav Flight Planner — basic A$50 VFR-only flight planning software with Australian waypoint database from Aerial Pursuits. Route planning is done by waypoint selection from a database of licensed and unlicensed airfields, navigation aids, towns plus own waypoints. Some surface features are included in the database but no airspace boundaries.AirNav VFR — from Sentient Software. Comes bundled with one of five VFR map packs containing Airservices Australia's charts, at a cost from about A$120. There is an optional discounted subscription for the biannual chart reissues. Each chart pack contains all WACs, VNCs, VTCs and ERC-Ls relevant to the area; for example the south-eastern Australian pack contains 8 WACs, 3 VNCs, 9 VTCs and 4 ERC-Ls. The software prevents access to the stored VNCs, ERC-Ls and VTCs two weeks after the official chart expiry date, but the access to WACs is not time-limited. Simply point-and-click on the Airservices Australia chart for route development and then upload to a GPS, or to a laptop with a small (800 × 480 pixel) separately mountable LCD monitor. AirNav VFR includes more than 6000 features in its Australian-only database including 2000 airfields, all VOR and NDB navaids, all the VFR waypoints shown on VTCs plus several thousand towns, lakes and mountains. The database is a combination of Airservices Australia data for aeronautical data and proprietary data for non-aviation data. AirNav VFR appears to be the most suitable flight planning software for the recreational aviator with a penchant for electronic planning but not as good as it could be for on-screen position tracking using a topographical map because a laptop is required in the cockpit; see topographical moving map software. If the moving map software was adapted to PDA operating systems it would be ideal. OziExplorer — internationally regarded Australian GPS mapping software primarily intended for surface travel but very adaptable to recreational aviation. Route planning allows the user to create waypoints, events and routes on a digitised chart by simple point and click and then upload these into a GPS. Similarly waypoints, routes or track logs can be downloaded from a GPS and displayed on a chart. The cost is about A$130 for the software, the digitised charts plus the matching map co-ordination files are purchased separately. The WACs,VNCs and VTCs are available in the OziExplorer format. OziExplorer can be run on a PC or a mobile PC then transferred to a PDA. OziExplorer does not perform the E-6B calculations and there is no aviation database; otherwise it is similar to AirNav VFR. OziExplorer can also be used for the import and export of your own waypoints and routes, for example OziExplorer route waypoints can be exported to the UltraNav database, and then allied with other data to do the E-6B calculations and print the flight plan. Flight Planner 3000 — comprehensive A$345+ VFR/IFR package from Champagne PC Services. Software has database waypoint route planning with selectable display — but does not include digitised topographical charts, so it is not ideal for light aircraft navigation. Command Flight Planner — from Command Software. This is similar to Flight Planner 3000 in application, , with a cost from A$375. E-6B calculationsThe E-6B calculations associated with tracks, TAS, wind velocities, headings, groundspeeds, density altitude, time, fuel, weight and balance and so on are an integral part of all flight planning software. However, US$20 stand-alone E-6B software utilities for desktops, PALM OS and POCKET PC handhelds are readily available — google the term 'E6b software'.Software conversion utilitiesXnView is a freeware utility for viewing and converting graphic files. |
12.6 Topographical moving map softwareSentient Software and OziExplorer also provide moving map software for onscreen position tracking. OziExplorer uses any topographical maps; AirNav VFR uses only Airservices Australia charts supplied by Sentient Software. Both normally require a GPS connected to a laptop computer, which is unsuitable for small cockpits, not least because of the power supply and power/data cabling difficulties.Sentient Software have approached that problem by cabling a remote A$700 – A$900 800 x 480 pixel LCD monitor to the laptop. The A$220 moving map software won't run on a PDA. OziExplorer have tackled it by producing the A$40 OziExplorerCE moving map software for PocketPC and Window CE PDAs, using map and route data uploaded from OziExplorer in the desktop. Moving map navigation is performed using the output from a GPS card in the CF slot of the PDA, or an external GPS cable connected to the PDA's serial port. Various parameters such as ground speed, track, next waypoint, distance, XTE, ETE and ETA are displayed. This is a reasonable solution in that all the cockpit hardware can be in one 'handheld' instrument. The map and route data from AirNav VFR could be uploaded into a PDA using OziExplorerCE if the files are first reformatted by the XnView conversion utility. However, Dr Paul Boxer of Sentient Software had this to say about such practices: "Unfortunately again, this is illegal. By doing this, they are acting as pirates. And worse for me, it also takes money out my business. AirNav users that copy the maps into any other format are in breach of their AirNav VFR licence as well as being in breach of Airservices Australia copyright. And both Airservices and I lose business. Unfortunately, it's just the current state of our society that breach of copyright is not always seen as a crime. Now the three major Australian commercial flight planners, Command, Champagne and AirNav VFR, all started as single man companies. There's just not enough Aussie pilots to support large software development. All three are better for Aussie pilots than any overseas product because of the wealth of Australian data used and the healthy competition between the three products. Aussie pilots should be glad we exist. However, if pirating of data continues, the businesses will make less profit and it might not take much for some of them to stop developing and improving their product or even stop supporting the Australian market altogether." GPS topographical moving mapSome very expensive handheld GPS receivers provide a colour moving map display using their proprietary maps. It appears that these maps are either very small-scale vector images that don't contain much detail when zoomed in, or they are digitised by a person unfamiliar with Australia and consequently the detail shown is sometimes inappropriate. Whichever, they are not as good as a display based on the standard paper topographical maps/charts and would probably fail a test for sole-means navigation.Effect of ADS-BThe possible implementation of ADS-B surveillance in the lower regions of Australian airspace makes a cockpit display of traffic information — to increase situation awareness — a viable benefit for VFR pilots. A basic moving map display offers a cheap solution for a cockpit display of traffic information [CDTI] but a moving topographical chart navigation display overlaid with a traffic information display is the logical outcome for VFR installations. |
12.7 Summary of optionsFor light aircraft VFR primary-means navigation, a detailed large-scale topographical display is essential for onscreen position tracking, so that the requirement for navigation "by visual reference to features shown on topographical charts" is complied with.
*note 1: plus the data base included in the handheld GPS. |
| Things that are handy to know
• There are four parameters for assessing the performance of a navigation system: availability, accuracy, integrity (i.e. trustworthiness) and continuity of service. • If a particular system is demonstrated to satisfy all four parameters for a flight phase then it may be classified as a sole-means navigation system — for that phase. In VMC conditions, navigation by visual reference to the ground satisfies all four parameters. But currently, in Australia, inertial navigation systems [INS], VOR/DME, ADF and Omega are the only approved sole-means instrument-based en route systems. • If the system meets the integrity and accuracy requirements, but falls short on availability or continuity of service, it may be approved as a primary-means navigation system for a flight phase, if specified procedures are employed. • Navigation systems that just meet the accuracy and integrity requirements may be employed as a supplemental-means navigation system for a particular flight phase, if used in conjunction with a sole-means navigation system. Pilots operating under the VFR may use GPS to supplement map reading and other visual reference navigation techniques. Any GPS receiver may be used but installed receivers must be fitted in accordance with CAAP 35-1 or AC21-36; see AIP GEN 1.5 section 8.5.4. For more information concerning the use of GPS in VFR navigation see AIP ENR 1.1 paragraphs 19.2 and 19.5. Note the wording of sections 19.2.1e and 19.5.1d. |
Groundschool – Flight Planning & Navigation Guide
| Guide content | 1. Australian airspace regulations | 2. Charts & compass | 3. Route planning |
| 4. Effect of wind | 5. Flight plan completion | 6. Safety audit | 7. Airmanship & flight discipline |
| 8. Enroute adjustments | 9. Supplementary techniques | 10. Global Positioning System |
| 11. Using the ADF | 12. Electronic planning & navigation | 13. ADS-B surveillance technology |
Supplementary documents
| Operations at non-controlled airfields | Safety during take-off & landing |
 The next (and last) section of this Guide discusses the new technology for communication, navigation and surveillance.There are also two supplementary documents which should be read: "Operations at non-controlled airfields" and "Safety during take-off & landing" |
Copyright © 2004–2011 John Brandon [contact information]
